Independent Egypt
The British ended their military occupation, except in the canal zone, in 1936. They reoccupied the country in 1939, because of World War II, and withdrew (again, except in the canal zone) in 1947. The battle of El Alamein, 1942, was the only major engagement in Egypt.
Egypt was a founding member of the Arab League in 1945 and joined with other Arab countries in an attack against newly formed Israel in 1948. Egypt performed poorly in this war, intensifying dissatisfaction with the monarchy. In 1952, a group of military officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser and General Mohammed Naguib deposed King Farouk and the next year proclaimed a republic, with Naguib as president. Internal friction led to Nasser's taking over the government in 1954.
Meanwhile, Britain had agreed to withdraw its troops from the canal zone and, along with the United States, to help construct the Aswan High Dam. In 1956, however, both nations withdrew their support because of Egypt's growing involvement with Communist countries. President Nasser then nationalized the canal, whereupon Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula and British and French forces landed at the canal. International pressure forced the attackers to withdraw. The Soviet Union began to provide Egypt with financial, technical, and military assistance, including help in building the Aswan Dam.
Nasser's hostility to Israel was matched in intensity by his desire for Arab unity. In 1958, Egypt joined with Syria to form the United Arab Republic; it was dissolved three years later. (Egypt kept the name for some years, however.) Tension with Israel continued until, in 1967, a full-scale war erupted. In only six days Israel defeated Egypt and allied Arab nations and gained possession of the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaze Strip. The canal was left impassable.
Meanwhile, in the early 1960's, Nasser created the Arab Socialist Union as the only legal party and severely limited basic freedoms. Government ownership was imposed on virtually all business and financial institutions.
Nasser died in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Dissatisfied with Egypt's dependence on the Soviet Union, Sadat established closer diplomatic and commercial ties with Western countries. In 1972, he expelled Russian military personnel.
In 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel but after initial successes were beaten back. With the United States acting as intermediary, Egypt and Israel reached a troop-disengagement agreement in 1974. Egypt regained a strip of land east of the Suez Canal and was able to reopen the canal the following year.
During 1974, Sadat liberalized his rule by releasing political prisoners, easing censorship, and curbing police powers. Sadat also worked to increase private enterprise and foreign investment in Egypt.
Sadat's economic reforms were slow in achieving results. Egypt faced serious financial problems, partly because of huge military expenditures. In November, 1977, Sadat visited Israel to show his willingness to seek peace.
In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty, under which Egypt regained the Sinai (in gradual steps from 1979 to 1982). Because the treaty contained no provision for a sovereign Palestinian state, Egypt was denounced by other Arab nations. In 1981, Sadat was assassinated by a group of Islamic extremists who opposed his treaty with Israel. His successor, Hosni Mubarak, maintained peace with Israel but also improved relations with other Arab states. He was reelected in 1987 and 1993.
For several years Egypt fought to suppress Islamist political movements, including a faction of terrorists. In 1997, one such faction murdered 68 people, including 58 foreign tourists, at a popular site in Luxor.
