The Republic

Meanwhile, in 1961, South Africa became a republic and withdrew from the British Commonwealth because of the other members' opposition to its racial policies. Under Prime Minister H. F. Verwoerd, more apartheid measures were imposed. The first Bantustan, Transkei, was granted self-government in 1963. In 1966 Verwoerd was assassinated by a deranged white. He was succeeded by John B. Vorster.

During the 1960's the United Nations repeatedly condemned South Africa for its apartheid policy. In 1966 the UN declared South Africa's mandate over South-West Africa to be ended, and in 1971 the International Court of Justice ruled that continued South African control was illegal. South Africa rejected these actions. Beginning with Transkei in 1976 the Bantustans were granted independence; other nations refused to recognize the Bantustans as independent, considering them puppet states established to foster apartheid.

Meanwhile, a continuing shortage of white workers and the need for trade with other African countries led to liberalization of the restrictions on blacks and coloreds. Despite these changes, there were growing demands for majority rule from other countries as well as from blacks within South Africa. Racial ferment increased sharply after riots in the black township of Soweto, near Johannesburg, in 1976. Other rioting broke out in Cape Town and Natal, and before order was restored 575 persons were killed. Guerrilla warfare against the government intensified as increasing numbers of blacks joined the forces of the ANC and other groups. Pieter W. Botha succeeded Vorster in 1978.

In 1983 South African voters approved a new constitution, which came into force in 1984. The constitution for the first time gave some political power to the colored and Asian populations. It also established a presidential form of government, and Botha became the country's president.

In 1985, because of a wave of violent clashes between the police and blacks protesting apartheid policies, South Africa declared a state of emergency. In other countries, revulsion against apartheid brought about a campaign for the imposition of trade sanctions against South Africa. In 1986 the European Community (what is now the European Union), six Commonwealth nations, and the United States all imposed sanctions against South Africa. The South African government abolished some apartheid laws, but opponents continued to demand a total dismantling of the system. In 1989 Botha resigned, and F. W. de Klerk became president. In 1990 de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and freed Nelson Mandela and other imprisoned ANC leaders.

In 1989 South Africa agreed to end its control over South-West Africa; the following year the possession became independent as Namibia. Only the Walvis Bay enclave remained under South African control, and it was handed over to Namibia in 1994.

In June and July of 1991, under the leadership of de Klerk the South African parliament repealed the laws that established apartheid. Other nations responded by lifting economic sanctions against South Africa. In December, 19 political groups, including the ANC and the National Party, gathered together in the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) and began negotiations with the goal of establishing a new constitutional government that would enfranchise blacks.

In late 1993, CODESA introduced an interim constitution giving blacks the right to vote, and it was approved by the country's parliament. The interim constitution also created nine provinces out of the four old ones, and abolished the Bantustans.

In April, 1994, blacks won a majority of the seats in the parliament. The ANC received the most votes and elected Nelson Mandela president of the country. The National Party received the second largest number of votes and, as the largest minority in parliament, elected de Klerk deputy president. In June, South Africa rejoined the British Commonwealth. A permanent constitution was enacted in 1996. In 1999, Thabo Mbeki, of the ANC, was elected president of the country. Mbeki was reelected in 2004.