The War

The conflict was unequal from the beginning. The U.S. Army, with only 28,000 men, was unready for war, but a large army was created within months. Spain had more than 150,000 troops in Cuba, but lacked the sea power to support them. The Americans had a powerful modern navy; Spain's was antiquated, inefficient, and inferior in armaments.

When the war began, part of the American fleet under Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong to the Philippines to attack Spain's Pacific fleet. In the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Dewey sank or burned all the Spanish ships. American casualties were a few wounded. Not having sufficient force to take the city of Manila, Dewey waited for reinforcements. Meanwhile, insurgents under Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been resisting Spanish rule for years, laid siege to Manila.

In the Atlantic, a Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera was on its way to American waters. Until his fleet could be located and destroyed, the United States deemed it unwise to land troops in Cuba. It was also feared that Cervera might bombard eastern seaports. On May 19 it was learned that the Spanish fleet had evaded the American navy patrol and had taken refuge in the harbor of Santiago on Cuba's southeastern coast. There it was blockaded by an American fleet under Admiral William T. Sampson and Commodore Winfield S. Schley. The fleet had three battleships and two cruisers, and was later joined by the battleship Oregon , which had to make the long voyage from Seattle around South America.

American army troops, who had been gathering in Tampa, in late June were sent to Santiago to assist the navy by taking the city of Santiago and forcing Cervera's fleet out of the harbor. The expedition of 17,000 men, under command of General William R. Shafter, consisted of 15 regiments of regular army troops plus 3 regiments of volunteers (including the “Rough Riders” under Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt). Many were cavalry troops, but few horses were brought along.

Santiago was strongly fortified and defended by 13,000 men. Two outer positions—a ridge known as San Juan Hill with 1,200 defenders and El Caney village with 500 defenders—guarded the city's approaches. On July 1, Shafter began an attack on those two positions.

In the assault popularly known as the “Battle of San Juan Hill,” all units participated gallantly, although the newspapers devoted disproportionate coverage to the exploits of the colorful Rough Riders. The battle was more difficult than anticipated. Unlike the Spaniards, who used smokeless powder, the Americans used old-fashioned gunpowder that revealed their firing positions with clouds of smoke. Casualties were 1,572 Americans and 850 Spaniards.

The Americans then began besieging the city, but were not yet in a position to threaten the Spanish fleet. Nevertheless, Cervera attempted an escape on July 3. In the ensuing battle, the American fleet's greater firepower overwhelmed the Spanish ships and all were forced onto the beach, reduced to flaming wrecks. The Spanish suffered nearly 500 casualties; the Americans, 1 wounded and 1 killed. The loss of the fleet meant that Spain could never hope to reinforce Cuba, virtually putting an end to the war. In the aftermath of the battle a national controversy resulted when Admiral Sampson claimed credit for victory, although he was not at the scene and Commodore Schley was in command.

Meanwhile, in the U.S. Army, yellow fever, malaria, and dysentery were fast cutting down the ranks. The troops' health and morale were further affected by the tainted food that was issued them. (This scandal of the “embalmed beef” caused a public outcry.) Although without an effective army, Shafter gambled by demanding a surrender. Luckily for the Americans, the Spanish decided Cuba was lost and chose not to resist further; they formally surrendered on July 17. American operations were then begun on Puerto Rico against little opposition. On August 12 an armistice was declared.

Meanwhile, in late July, United States troops had landed in the Philippines, which by then was largely in insurgent hands except for Manila and other large cities. The Americans captured Manila on August 13.