Introduction to Spanish-American War

Spanish-American War, the War between the United States and Spain in 1898. It began as an American intervention to assist the Cubans in winning their independence from Spain, but became a move toward the United States establishing itself as a colonial power. With its defeat, Spain lost the last remnants of its once great colonial empire—Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. The United States emerged as a major power with far-flung colonial possessions.

Background

Relations between the United States and Spain had been strained for many years, because of Spain's presence as a colonial power in the Western Hemisphere. Various Cuban attempts to throw off Spanish rule, the most important being the Ten Years' War (1868–78), had over the decades engendered American sympathy and support for the rebels. In 1895 a new Cuban revolt broke out and quickly took the form of guerrilla attacks. Spain responded harshly against the uprising by herding civilians into squalid and overcrowded concentration camps, where many thousands died of disease.

In the United States, William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal, Joseph Pulitzer's New York World , and other newspapers—to build up their circulation—printed sensationalized stories of rebel victories and Spanish atrocities. The “yellow press,” as these newspapers became known, spearheaded the public demand to intervene and help the Cubans. Then on February 15, 1898, the battleship Maine , in Havana harbor to protect American interests, was sunk by a mysterious explosion that killed 260 men. Spain was not officially blamed, but the American people, influenced by the yellow press, considered that country guilty. (In the 1970's, a U.S. Navy investigation held that spontaneous combustion in a coal bunker caused the explosion.)

Spain sought a peaceful settlement, as did President McKinley, but under heavy pressure to intervene, he changed his mind, and events moved swiftly toward war. On March 9, Congress appropriated $50,000,000 for defense. Even though Spain had finally agreed to give the Cubans autonomy, McKinley on April 11 sent a message to Congress asking permission to intervene in Cuba. On April 25 Congress declared war. “Remember the Maine” became the watchword as the nation mobilized.

The War

The conflict was unequal from the beginning. The U.S. Army, with only 28,000 men, was unready for war, but a large army was created within months. Spain had more than 150,000 troops in Cuba, but lacked the sea power to support them. The Americans had a powerful modern navy; Spain's was antiquated, inefficient, and inferior in armaments.

When the war began, part of the American fleet under Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong to the Philippines to attack Spain's Pacific fleet. In the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Dewey sank or burned all the Spanish ships. American casualties were a few wounded. Not having sufficient force to take the city of Manila, Dewey waited for reinforcements. Meanwhile, insurgents under Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been resisting Spanish rule for years, laid siege to Manila.

In the Atlantic, a Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera was on its way to American waters. Until his fleet could be located and destroyed, the United States deemed it unwise to land troops in Cuba. It was also feared that Cervera might bombard eastern seaports. On May 19 it was learned that the Spanish fleet had evaded the American navy patrol and had taken refuge in the harbor of Santiago on Cuba's southeastern coast. There it was blockaded by an American fleet under Admiral William T. Sampson and Commodore Winfield S. Schley. The fleet had three battleships and two cruisers, and was later joined by the battleship Oregon , which had to make the long voyage from Seattle around South America.

American army troops, who had been gathering in Tampa, in late June were sent to Santiago to assist the navy by taking the city of Santiago and forcing Cervera's fleet out of the harbor. The expedition of 17,000 men, under command of General William R. Shafter, consisted of 15 regiments of regular army troops plus 3 regiments of volunteers (including the “Rough Riders” under Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt). Many were cavalry troops, but few horses were brought along.

Santiago was strongly fortified and defended by 13,000 men. Two outer positions—a ridge known as San Juan Hill with 1,200 defenders and El Caney village with 500 defenders—guarded the city's approaches. On July 1, Shafter began an attack on those two positions.

In the assault popularly known as the “Battle of San Juan Hill,” all units participated gallantly, although the newspapers devoted disproportionate coverage to the exploits of the colorful Rough Riders. The battle was more difficult than anticipated. Unlike the Spaniards, who used smokeless powder, the Americans used old-fashioned gunpowder that revealed their firing positions with clouds of smoke. Casualties were 1,572 Americans and 850 Spaniards.

The Americans then began besieging the city, but were not yet in a position to threaten the Spanish fleet. Nevertheless, Cervera attempted an escape on July 3. In the ensuing battle, the American fleet's greater firepower overwhelmed the Spanish ships and all were forced onto the beach, reduced to flaming wrecks. The Spanish suffered nearly 500 casualties; the Americans, 1 wounded and 1 killed. The loss of the fleet meant that Spain could never hope to reinforce Cuba, virtually putting an end to the war. In the aftermath of the battle a national controversy resulted when Admiral Sampson claimed credit for victory, although he was not at the scene and Commodore Schley was in command.

Meanwhile, in the U.S. Army, yellow fever, malaria, and dysentery were fast cutting down the ranks. The troops' health and morale were further affected by the tainted food that was issued them. (This scandal of the “embalmed beef” caused a public outcry.) Although without an effective army, Shafter gambled by demanding a surrender. Luckily for the Americans, the Spanish decided Cuba was lost and chose not to resist further; they formally surrendered on July 17. American operations were then begun on Puerto Rico against little opposition. On August 12 an armistice was declared.

Meanwhile, in late July, United States troops had landed in the Philippines, which by then was largely in insurgent hands except for Manila and other large cities. The Americans captured Manila on August 13.

Results

On December 10, 1898, the peace treaty was signed in Paris. Spain freed Cuba and ceded to the United States Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, for which the United States agreed to reimburse Spain $20,000,000. Cuban independence was protected by the Teller amendment, a disclaimer of annexation passed by the U.S. Senate and attached to a war resolution bill at the outbreak of the conflict. Independence was, however, delayed by United States military occupation until May, 1902. In the Philippines, the insurgents resisted American rule and United States control was not established until 1902, after Aguinaldo's forces had been defeated. The waging of war in the Pacific gave impetus to United States annexation of Hawaii, which was considered vital to United States security. (It was annexed during the war.) The length of time it took the Oregon to sail from San Francisco to Cuba—66 days—pointed to the need for a canal across Central America and led to the building of the Panama Canal.