The Old Kingdom (2686 B.C.-2181 B.C.)

The period of the Old Kingdom, from Dynasty III through Dynasty VI, was one of peace and, for the most part, prosperity. There was no standing army or navy; however, men were conscripted for raids against neighboring countries---to the Sinai Peninsula for choice carving stone and turquoise; to Libya for cattle; to Punt (Somalia) for frankincense and myrrh; and to Byblos, on the Lebanese coast, for timber and Syrian slaves. The voyages to Byblos may not have been raids, as the Egyptians apparently maintained a trading colony there. Egypt's main crops were flax and wheat; the staples of diet were bread and beer.

To ensure the royal succession, the pharaoh had several wives. The oldest son of the chief wife was the heir; if she had no sons, the throne could go to the son of another wife. If the chief wife had only daughters, one of them might be married to a halfbrother, son of a lesser wife, reinforcing his right to the throne and assuring it to the chief wife's descendants.

During the Old Kingdom Egypt made great advances in mathematics and astronomy. The world's first calendar based on the solar year was adopted. The outstanding accomplishment was the development of the great stone pyramids. Each pharaoh built his own tomb, intending it to serve as a monument to his greatness. Djoser, a Dynasty III pharaoh, had an official, Imhotep, who built his master a pyramid instead of a mastaba. The Step Pyramid, as it is called, is the first known structure built entirely of stone and the first of pyramid shape. It is at Saqqara, the necropolis (cemetery) of Memphis.

The Great Pyramid, built at Giza by Khufu of Dynasty IV, is the largest edifice ever constructed entirely by manual labor. Nearby is one almost as large, built by Khafre, who also had the Sphinx carved as a monument to himself.

Toward the end of the Old Kingdom a class of feudal lords developed. The pharaoh, rather than being the main god, became in religious belief merely the son of a god. His power was no longer absolute, and at the end of Dynasty VI the country fell into chaos.