The Middle Kingdom (2040 B.C.-1786 B.C.)

Under the Theban pharaohs the mines of the Eastern Desert, which had fallen out of Egyptian hands, were taken over again and contact with foreign countries reestablished. See trade was carried on with Ugarit in Syria and the Minoan kingdom in Crete; Egypt exported pottery, glass, stonework, metalwork, textiles, and jewelry. Construction of new irrigation facilities opened up a large part of the Faiyum area for agriculture. To the south, Nubia, which was disrupting commerce with Punt, was invaded several times and finally annexed for its gold mines. There were also campaigns against Libya and into Palestine.

A new capital was founded near Memphis early in the era, but Thebes remained important. The Theban god Amen rose to supremacy, becoming the foremost national god. Many temples were built during the Middle Kingdom. Both art and literature reached a stage of refinement that came to be regarded as classic and therefore the model for centuries to come. Sciences such as mathematics and medicine were highly developed. Scribes, clerks who did the actual writing on papyri, often rose to important posts.

Toward the end of Dynasty XII royal power declined. The pharaohs became puppet rulers dominated by high court officials.