Russia

Alexander I (Russian: Aleksandr Pavlovich) (1777-1825) was czar from 1801 to 1825. An absolute ruler, he used his autocratic power for what he believed to be the benefit of his subjects. However, he ruled in an age of revolutionary change, and his 18th-century view of the monarch's role soon was outdated. He was responsive to liberal ideas early in his reign, but his later advisers were conservative and the policies formed with their counsel stirred much opposition. Alexander's personality was complex and unstable. In his later years he became a religious fanatic.

Alexander was born in St. Petersburg, the eldest son of Czar Paul I. His education was supervised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great, who had a strong influence on him. Alexander assumed the throne after his father was assassinated in a palace coup (which Alexander had foreknowledge of but did nothing to stop). He then initiated social, administrative, and economic reforms—reorganizing the government's administration into ministries with defined responsibilities, fostering education and science, and freeing the serfs in the Baltic provinces.

Foreign affairs took much of Alexander's attention. At first he chose neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars, but eventually he opposed French expansion. After suffering a decisive defeat at the Battle of Friedland, 1807, Alexander signed the Treaty of Tilsit, becoming Napoleon's ally. Later, Alexander broke with Napoleon, and in 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia.

In 1813 Alexander became one of the leaders of a coalition of nations opposing Napoleon. To maintain stability in Europe after Napoleon's final defeat, Alexander entered the Holy and Quadruple alliances with the other great powers, 1815. The concluding years of his reign were marked by rising discontent, as his policies became increasingly unpopular.

Alexander II (Russian: Aleksandr Nikolaevich) (1818-1881) was czar from 1855 to 1881, succeeding his father, Nicholas I. Although basically conservative, Alexander saw that reform was necessary in economically backward Russia. Despite bitter opposition from the landed nobility, he freed the serfs in 1861. This action made administrative and judicial reorganization necessary. Local elective assemblies and local courts were created. Alexander also reorganized the Russian army, limited the power of the secret police, and allowed greater freedom to the press and the universities.

Alexander's reforms pleased neither the nobility, who thought they went too far, nor the revolutionaries, who thought they did not go far enough. A rebellion in Russian Poland in 1863 made Alexander less disposed toward reform. Severe measures were taken to stamp out the growing revolutionary spirit in Russia. Some reforms were withdrawn, others curtailed.

During Alexander's reign, Russia expanded into the Caucasus region and Central Asia. A significant victory was won over Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. Within Russia, however, tensions were increasing. Revolutionaries became as ruthless as the government. In 1881 Alexander was assassinated by a radical group called the People's Will.

Alexander III (Russian: Aleksandr Aleksandrovich) (1845-1894) was czar from 1881 to 1894, succeeding his father, Alexander II. Because of his father's assassination by radicals, Alexander ordered the destruction of the revolutionary movement in Russia. To strengthen autocratic rule, he set up repressive measures, much like those of his grandfather, Nicholas I.

Alexander brought back censorship, substantially reduced the power of the local governing councils, and persecuted the Jews. He began a program to impose Russian culture on the subject peoples of the empire. He encouraged industrialization and also established factory laws guaranteeing workers a minimum wage and standard working conditions, although these were widely ignored.

During Alexander's reign, Russia extended its Asiatic boundaries as far as Afghanistan without war. Alexander sought to strengthen Russia's position as the dominant power in the Balkans and formed an alliance with France, 1891-94.