Scotland

Alexander II (1198-1249) was king from 1214 to 1249, succeeding his father, William the Lion. Alexander joined the English barons opposing King John of England in 1215 and was excommunicated by the pope, who supported John. He was later reconciled with the Church, and in 1217 he established friendly relations with John's successor, Henry III, marrying Henry's eldest sister, Joan, in 1221. In 1230 Alexander turned back a Norse invasion of Scotland.

The friendship with England ended when Joan died in 1238, and Alexander then married the daughter of a French noble. In 1244 Henry massed an army to invade the Scottish kingdom and demand homage from Alexander. The dispute was settled without war by a treaty at Newcastle. In 1249 Alexander was leading an expedition to wrest control of the Hebrides Islands from Norway when he died of fever.

Alexander III (1241-1286) was king from 1249 to 1286, succeeding his father, Alexander II. He assumed the throne at the age of eight and two years later was married to Margaret, eldest daughter of King Henry III of England. During Alexander's minority, the kingdom was under the regency of English and Scottish nobles who constantly struggled with one another for power. Shortly after coming of age, he turned back an invading force led by King Haakon IV of Norway at the battle of Largs, 1263. As a result, the contested Hebrides and the Isle of Man were ceded to Scotland, 1266.

The remaining years of Alexander's reign, a golden age in Scottish history, were marked by peace, prosperity, and independence. He died without a male heir and his dynasty ended with the brief reign of his young granddaughter, Margaret.