Chouans, a group of peasants in western France who rebelled against the revolutionary government in 1793. The word chouan, meaning screech owl, was the nickname of their first leader, Jean Cotter-eau. Their revolt was caused by several factors—their loyalty to the deposed royal family, to local nobles, and to the Church; the new government's suppression of one of their principal livelihoods, smuggling to evade taxes on salt; and the enforcement of conscription. The Chouans joined forces with the royalists in guerrilla warfare against the government and were not completely subdued until 1815. Honoré de Balzac's The Chouans and Victor Hugo's Ninety-Three are novels about this revolt.