England

called Henry Beauclerc, (the scholar), ruled 1100–35. He was the youngest son of William (I) the Conqueror, and succeeded his brother William (II) Rufus. Henry's oldest brother, Robert, duke of Normandy, attempted to seize the throne, but failed.

Henry I strengthened the Norman monarchy in England. After Robert met defeat in 1106, Henry reunited Normandy and England, and established a system of government administration using trained officials.

Henry named as his successor his daughter Matilda, who was married to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. Upon the king's death, the barons repudiated Matilda, and Henry's nephew Stephen was crowned king.

ruled 1154–89, the first of the Plantagenet line of kings. He was the grandson of Henry I. He already ruled Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Aquitaine when, by terms of an agreement made by his mother, Matilda, and King Stephen of England, he succeeded to the throne.

Henry II strengthened the monarchy and initiated financial, military, and judicial reforms (including the first jury system). Henry's attempts to gain control of the church courts brought him into conflict with the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, and led to Becket's murder.

Welsh troops, with Henry's support, invaded Ireland in 1169. Henry led his own armies in an invasion in 1171 and conquered much of western Ireland. Henry's three eldest sons, Henry, Geoffrey, and Richard, joined Louis VII of France in a war against their father over the Plantagenet holdings in France. Henry and Geoffrey died before the end of the conflict. In 1189 Richard joined with Henry's youngest son, John, and Philip II of France to defeat Henry at Anjou. Henry died of an illness only days later and was succeeded by Richard.

(1207–1272), ruled 1216–72. Under him the government came more and more to be based on the principle of common law. He was the grandson of Henry II and succeeded his father, King John. He took the throne at a moment of impending civil war, with Prince Louis of France occupying London at the invitation of a group of English barons. Supporters of the nine-year-old king expelled the French and united the dissident barons behind him.

Henry III took over control at the age of 20. As a ruler he was extravagant and willful and so incompetent in foreign affairs that he lost most of the vast French land holdings of his grandfather. By the Treaty of Paris in 1259 Henry renounced his claims to Normandy and other French estates, keeping only Gascony and a part of Aquitaine.

Henry's barons bitterly resented the many French and Italian advisers he kept around him. He permitted the pope to raise large sums of money in England, and himself demanded funds constantly from the barons. Led by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, the barons in 1258 forced Henry to accept the Provisions of Oxford, which established a council of nobles with veto power over the king's decisions. The king soon repudiated the agreement, causing the barons to revolt. Henry was defeated by de Montfort at the Battle of Lewes (1264) and imprisoned, and de Montfort ruled England. Henry's son Edward defeated de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham (1265), in which de Montfort was killed. Henry was returned to the throne, but for the rest of his reign real power was exercised by his son, who succeeded him as Edward I.

(1367–1413), called Bolingbroke, ruled 1399–1413, the first king of the House of Lancaster. He was the son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who was an uncle of Richard II. Henry sided with the English lords in a conflict between them and Richard and was banished by the king in 1398. Upon the death of John of Gaunt in 1399, Richard seized the Lancastrian estates. Henry returned to England, raised an army, deposed Richard (who died, probably murdered, the following year), and took the throne.

There were many attempts to dethrone Henry IV. The king defeated his enemies and in 1405 put to death the leaders of the last English revolt. The Welsh rebellion was put down finally by Henry, Prince of Wales, who succeeded his father to the throne as Henry V.

(1387–1422), ruled 1413–22. He was the son of Henry IV, whom he succeeded. As prince, Henry V had gained a reputation as a military leader. The truce of 1396, which had halted fighting in the Hundred Years' War, was broken in 1415 when Henry V invaded France. He hoped to reestablish the claim of his great-grandfather, Edward III, to the French crown. Henry's first major engagement against the French was a brilliant victory at the Battle of Agincourt (October, 1415). He was married in 1420 to Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France, and by the Treaty of Troyes (also 1420) was acknowledged as heir to the French throne. Two years later Henry died, leaving his empire to an infant son, Henry VI.

(1421–1471), ruled 1422–61 and 1470–71, last king of the House of Lancaster. Although Henry was crowned king of France in 1431, the French were roused to opposition by Joan of Arc, and the English were slowly driven from the country.

Henry VI was a simple, pious man and a weak ruler. In 1450 a band of rebels defeated Henry's army and briefly seized control of London before they were suppressed. In 1453 Henry had the first of his recurrent seizures of insanity. A move by Richard, duke of York, to be declared successor to the throne led to the Wars of the Roses.

Henry VI was deposed in 1461 by York's son, who took the throne as Edward IV. Henry was imprisoned in 1465, but had the crown restored to him briefly in 1470. The following year his supporters were defeated, and Edward resumed his reign. Henry was returned to the Tower of London, where within a month he died, probably murdered.

(1457–1509), ruled 1485–1509, first king of the House of Tudor, a Welsh noble family. Henry, earl of Richmond, was descended from a branch of the House of Lancaster. He lived in exile during the last 14 years of Yorkist rule. After Richard III became king, noblemen opposing him turned to Henry to dethrone the king. The death of Richard's son and heir in 1484 strengthened Henry's cause. In 1485 Henry landed in Wales, gathered supporters, and with them met and defeated Richard's army at Bosworth Field. Richard died in battle, and Henry was proclaimed king.

In 1486 Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, hoping to end dissension between the rival factions of York and Lancaster. For many years, however, Yorkists and other enemies of Henry led attempts to overthrow him and place an impostor on the throne. The last armed revolt was put down in 1497.

Henry VII built up England's finances, systematized local justice, and encouraged cloth weaving and shipbuilding. His commercial treaties greatly expanded English trade. John Cabot was sent across the Atlantic in search of China. Henry made an alliance with Spain and had his eldest son, Arthur, married to Catherine of Aragon, a Spanish princess. Upon Arthur's death, Henry betrothed his second son, Henry, to the widowed Catherine.

To end the frequent fighting with Scotland, Henry negotiated a treaty in 1499 and had his daughter Margaret married to King James IV. (In 1603 their great-grandson, James VI of Scotland, became the first Stuart king of England as James I.) English administration in Ireland was revised and strengthened. Henry left England, relatively stable internally and at peace with other nations, to his son and successor, Henry VIII.

(1491–1547), ruled 1509–47. Henry had a fine intellect, excellent education, and tremendous energy. Devoutly religious as a young man, in 1521 he was declared a Defender of the Faith by Pope Leo X for his publication in answer to Martin Luther's criticisms. Although Henry was often ruthless, ridding himself of objectionable persons by having them declared traitors, the English people adored him and approved of most of his actions.

Henry was only 18 when he succeeded to the throne. The first part of his reign was directed by Thomas (later Cardinal) Wolsey, who became his chancellor. England was not yet a powerful nation, and under Wolsey Henry made foreign alliances designed to protect his country by maintaining a balance of power in Europe. He launched expensive campaigns against France at various times. They achieved little but encouraged Henry to begin building the Royal Navy. He was more successful at home. He united Wales and England in 1536 and assumed the title of king of Ireland in 1541.

Henry had married his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon, in 1509. Only one of their children survived infancy—the future Mary I. Determined to have a son to succeed him, Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage. The pope, afraid of offending Queen Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, refused. Wolsey was held responsible for the pope's refusal and was replaced as chancellor in 1529 by Sir Thomas More.

In that year Henry summoned what has come to be known as the Reformation Parliament. During the seven years that it sat, the parliament severed all ties between the pope and the Catholic Church in England, which was made an independent body, the Church of England, under the authority of the king. Sir Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher, however, denied Henry's supremacy and were beheaded. Under the direction of Thomas Cromwell, whom Henry appointed as vice-regent in charge of the Church, the monasteries and convents were dissolved in 1536–39. This act brought enormous wealth to Henry and created a new landed class among the purchasers of the vast properties.

Meanwhile, in 1533 Thomas Cranmer, a supporter of Henry who had become archbishop of Canterbury, granted the king his annulment. Several months earlier Henry had married Anne Boleyn, with whom he had one child, the future Elizabeth I, but not the son that Henry wanted. In 1536 Anne was found guilty of adultery (probably on false evidence) and was beheaded.

Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, bore him a son, Edward (VI), in 1537 and died a few days after the birth. Cromwell arranged Henry's next marriage (1540), with a German princess, Anne of Cleves, for political reasons. Henry found her ugly, however, and when the alliance with his wife's native land became unnecessary, the marriage was annulled and Cromwell was convicted of treason and beheaded. Henry's fifth queen (1540–42) was Catherine Howard, a flirtatious young woman whose indiscretions led to her beheading. Catherine Parr, a widow, became Henry's sixth wife (1543) and survived him.