Napoleon Bonaparte

Despite military victories, the ruling Directory was on the verge of collapse. Taking advantage of the situation, Napoleon Bonaparte, a military hero, returned to France from an expedition to Egypt and seized control of the government in 1799. Peace came after the Austrians were defeated in 1800. During this respite, Napoleon consolidated his control over France. He reestablished order and centralized the administration. In 1804 he proclaimed himself emperor.

Meanwhile, warfare had erupted again. In 1805 French naval power was destroyed by the British off Cape Trafalgar. On the continent, a coalition that included Austria, Russia, and Sweden was formed to combat the territorial aggressions of France. Following brilliant military victories against Austrian and Russian forces, France took control of Italy, Holland, and south and west Germany. Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He conquered Prussia and Portugal and then occupied Spain. In 1812, warfare again broke out with Russia. Napoleon victoriously made his way through Russia and entered Moscow. However, the city had been deserted and much of it was destroyed by a fire, probably started by the departing citizens. The French army, lacking adequate supplies for winter warfare, made a disastrous retreat.

In 1813, Russia and Prussia formed an alliance to liberate Europe from Napoleon. French forces were defeated in Spain, and Napoleon suffered his first great personal defeat in battle when troops under his command were routed at Leipzig. Armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and Sweden invaded France and entered Paris in 1814. French royalists negotiated for a return of the Bourbon monarchy. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled. In 1815 he returned to France and attempted to regain power. He marched into Paris with the support of the French army, and declared himself emperor again. The other European powers, however, would not tolerate him as ruler. They assembled troops in Belgium and defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815.