From Roman Empire to Holy Roman Empire

In the fifth century A.D.Italy was invaded by Visigoths, Huns, and Vandals. The Roman armies at this time were made up largely of German mercenaries, who became the real rulers of the country. In 476 the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by Odoacer, leader of the mercenaries.

In 493 Theodoric, leader of the Ostrogoths, became king of Italy, with Ravenna as capital. When Justinian I became Byzantine emperor in 527, he wanted Italy under his rule. The Ostrogoths were defeated after almost 20 years of warfare (535–54) that left Rome and much of Italy in ruins.

In 568 the Lombards, a Germanic tribe, occupied northern Italy. Ravenna and the south remained under Byzantine control. The popes at Rome gradually assumed temporal (political) power over the Patrimony of St. Peter (territory held by the Church). In the early 700's the Lombards began encroaching on the papal lands. Pope Stephen II appealed for help to Pepin the Short, king of the Franks.

In 755 and 756 Pepin invaded Italy, subdued the Lombards, and declared the pope sovereign over Ravenna and the papal patrimony. Soon the Lombards began again to threaten the papal lands, however. Pepin's son Charlemagne deposed the Lombard king in 774 and assumed the Lombard crown himself.

In 800 Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Roman emperor of the West. Only southern Italy remained under Byzantine rule. After eight kings of Charlemagne's line, the rule of northern Italy passed to a variety of ambitious nobles, Italian and foreign. The monarchy grew steadily weaker, and the Italian city-states became virtually self-ruling. There was frequent warfare among noble families, among cities, and between Italian and foreign contenders for the title of king.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Saracens (Muslims) occupied southern Italy. By the early 11th century, they had been driven from that region and the Italians and Byzantines were fighting for control of it. Normans appeared in southern Italy in about 1016. By the end of the century, the Normans had established themselves as rulers. They also conquered Sicily, 1072–91, and created the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.