From Napoleon to Unification

When the French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792, Italy again became a battleground. French conquest began with the annexation of Savoy and Nice and ended with the subjugation of the entire peninsula by Napoleon in 1796–97. Italy was reorganized into republics and small kingdoms. With the collapse of Napoleon's empire in 1814–15, Italy was divided among France, Austria, and Spain. leaving the Hapsburg dynasty with dominating influence on the peninsula.

Italian princes, restored to power by the Austrians, reestablished autocratic rule. Napoleon, however, had instituted many reforms, including republican government. Discontent with the Austrian autocracy was widespread, and a revolutionary movement known as the risorgimento (resurgence) began. Secret revolutionary societies such as the Carbonari were formed. Revolts flared up in all parts of Italy, but they were crushed by the Italian aristocracy, with the help of the Austrians.

In 1831 Charles Albert of Savoy succeeded to the throne of Sardinia. A young patriot, Giuseppe Mazzini, urged him to lead the fight for unification of Italy. Sentiment for uniting Italy under the House of Savoy grew. Resentment of foreign domination resulted in the Revolution of 1848, in which Charles Albert led Italians against Austrians. Republics were established in several states. The revolution was crushed by armies from Austria and France, who had allied to block the attempt to unify Italy. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

Sardinia, led by Prime Minister Camillo di Cavour, attempted to gain support from other European nations for the unification of Italy. In 1859 Sardinia and France formed an alliance to expel the Austrians from Italy. They attacked the Austrians and pushed them back to Venice. Meanwhile, Giuseppe Garibaldi drove the Spanish out of the Two Sicilies. In 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was formally proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Rome and Venice remained outside the kingdom.

Italian forces, aided by the Prussians, who were at war with Austria, conquered Venice in 1866. Meanwhile, Napoleon III, emperor of France, sent troops to Rome to uphold the pope's authority in the city. Garibaldi led unsuccessful attacks against the French troops in Rome in 1862 and 1867. In 1870, after Napoleon III was overthrown, French troops were withdrawn and Italy was fully united. Italy annexed Rome and, in 1871, proclaimed it the capital. The pope was deprived of all political authority.