Medieval Development

The Frankish ruler Charlemagne died in 814, and his empire was gradually divided among his various heirs. None of them exercised any authority over the farther provinces. In the Netherlands the feudal states became independent domains, only nominally a part of the emerging nations of France and Germany between which they were divided. The entire delta region and all territory east of the Schelde fell within the Kingdom of Germany of the Holy Roman Empire. The Low German dialect of the area was called Dutch, and the people of the German Netherlands came to be known as the Dutch.

The state occupying the coastal area between the delta region and the Zuider Zee was Holland. It ruled the other coastal states of the German Netherlands. The coastal area was in constant danger of being engulfed by the sea, and had to be protected by dikes. The Dutch became expert at draining and reclaiming flooded land.

In the 9th and 10th centuries Flanders, in the French Netherlands, became the major cloth-producing country in Europe, weaving wool bought from England. The seafaring Dutch traded North Sea herring with peoples of the Baltic area, who supplied them with lumber and beer, and sailed to the Bay of Biscay for wine and salt. During the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), fought between France and England, France controlled Flanders and the English sold their wool to the Dutch instead of to the Flemish. Middelburg, Dordrecht, Leiden, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and later Antwerp became established as mercantile cities, with a large, prosperous middle class.