Golden Age

Following the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the two monarchies were united in 1479. To stamp out religious heresy, Queen Isabella had established the Inquisition in 1478, and in 1492 the monarchs expelled all Jews unwilling to convert to Catholicism. That same year, the last of the Moors were conquered, bringing all of Spain under the rule of the two monarchs. Also in 1492 the monarchs sponsored Christopher Columbus' voyage to find a direct sea route to the East. His exploration of the New World initiated the golden age of Spain.

Charles I, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, succeeded to the throne in 1516. He was also a grandson of the Hapsburg Holy Roman emperor, Maximilian I. When Maximilian died in 1519, Charles became Emperor Charles V. During his reign and that of his son, Philip II (1556–98), Spain controlled a vast empire. Charles imposed heavy taxation on his Spanish subjects to help finance foreign wars. However, large quantities of precious metals imported from America greatly stimulated trade and industry.

Charles abdicated in 1556, dividing his empire. Ferdinand, his brother, became Holy Roman emperor and received the Austrian dominions. Philip, his son, inherited Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, and colonial possessions in America, North Africa, and the Pacific Ocean. In an effort to prevent the Muslims from extending their control over the Mediterranean, Philip joined with Venice and Pope Pius V to defeat the Ottoman Turks in the sea battle of Lepanto (1571). (

The Netherlands revolted in the 1560's, beginning a long struggle for independence. In an attempted invasion of England, the Spanish Armada was destroyed (1588). ( Privateers preyed on Spain's treasure fleets from the New World, while the Turks threatened Spanish commerce in the Mediterranean. By the 17th century, Spain was heavily in debt. The government was incompetent and corrupt and the court seethed with intrigue.

The Moriscos (Christian descendants of the Moors), rebellious against Spanish authority, were expelled in 1609. In 1640 the Portuguese revolted and, with French aid, achieved independence. In the Peace of Westphalia (1648), ending the Thirty Years' War, Spain recognized Dutch independence. (