History, 1837–1914

William IV died in 1837 and was succeeded by his 18-year-old niece, Victoria. During her reign of more than 63 years the role of constitutional monarch became clearly defined. Although actual authority rested with Parliament, the queen influenced governmental action. Her intelligent concern for the nation won her subjects' respect and affection.

Victoria's reign began in an era of prolonged European peace and, in Britain, of unprecedented industrial, commercial, and colonial growth. Railways, the new means of transportation, were rapidly extended. Steamships began crossing the ocean in 1838. The telegraph came into general use between 1837 and 1842.

Workers, however, suffered hardship from low wages and high food prices, and had little voice in government. Government regulations limited the activities of trade unions. In 1837–38 a workers' group drew up a “People's Charter” of rights and reforms. Chartism became a strong movement that threatened the government. Parliament, however, ignored Chartist petitions.

The Whigs and Tories gradually came to be known, respectively, as Liberals and Conservatives. In 1841 Sir Robert Peel was named prime minister. Although a Conservative, Peel had been active in reform movements. Under his ministry, customs duties were lowered and an income tax levied. Chartist agitation convinced him that the Corn Laws, which created the high food prices, could not be maintained. The Irish potato famine in 1845–46 made further delay impossible. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 over Conservative opposition. Peel, opposed by some members of his own party, resigned.

Under the Liberal leadership of Lord John Russell, a 10-hour-day work bill was passed in 1847, and a public health act in 1848. Repeal of the Navigation Laws in 1849 established free trade in British ports. New laws improved working conditions in factories and mines.

Foreign policy, which favored expansion, was largely directed by Lord Palmerston, who first became foreign secretary in 1830. Colonization in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa was actively encouraged. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain by China in 1842.

In 1854 Britain entered the Crimean War against Russia. The British army made a poor showing at first, and bitter criticism caused the cabinet to resign. Lord Palmerston became prime minister. Military administration was improved, and the war ended in 1856 with Russian expansion checked for the time being.

In India, control by the British East India Company had increased steadily. In 1857 the Indian Mutiny broke out. The rebellion was put down with considerable bloodshed, and administration in India was taken over by the British government.

In 1866 the Conservatives came to power. The desire of the British people for political and social betterment, however, was too strong to be ignored. In 1867 the second Reform Act was passed, doubling the number of voters. Benjamin Disraeli was named prime minister in 1868, but a Liberal victory soon afterwards brought William Gladstone to office. Until Disraeli's death in 1881, the prime ministry alternated between him and Gladstone, as public favor swung between parties. Gladstone emphasized social reform; Disraeli, imperial expansion.

During Gladstone's first ministry, the Anglican Church in Ireland was made separate from the government (1869). The Elementary Education Act of 1870 initiated free, compulsory education. The army and the judicial system were reorganized. In 1872, the secret ballot was introduced.

In Disraeli's second ministry (1874–80) Britain purchased shares in the Suez Canal, which led to Britain's military occupation of Egypt. In 1876 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India, and Britain and its colonies became the British Empire. Cyprus was acquired in 1878.

In the second Gladstone ministry (1880–85) an act extending suffrage in municipal elections and the Reform Act of 1884, providing almost universal male suffrage, were passed. Working with the Irish statesman Charles Stewart Parnell, Gladstone made repeated unsuccessful attempts to give Ireland home rule. His Home Rule Act was defeated in 1886 and 1893.

The expansionist policies of Disraeli were continued under the Liberals. There were frequent small wars in colonial areas. Discovery of gold in the South African Republic in 1884 brought conflict between the Dutch settlers (Boers) and the British colonists. The resulting Boer War (1899–1902) made South Africa part of the British Empire. An uprising against foreign powers in China, the Boxer Rebellion (1900), resulted in establishment of the “open door” trade policy for China.

In 1901 Queen Victoria died, and her son Edward VII (1901–10) came to the throne. The Edwardian Era was a period of social elegance and of peace. It was also the period in which socialism became a major force in British politics.

The trade union movement in Britain tended to support the principles of socialism. The Fabian Society, founded in 1884 by British intellectuals, thought socialism should be achieved by political means. In 1893 the Independent Labour party was formed by James Keir Hardie. With its support, the Labour Representation Committee was formed in 1900 and succeeded in uniting the unions and socialist groups, including the Fabian Society, into a political organization.

In 1906 the group became the Labour party and joined forces with Liberals and Irish Nationalists. The Liberals won control of Parliament. Legislation was enacted on workmen's compensation, old-age pensions, minimum wages, health insurance, and government employment agencies. The Parliament Act of 1911 stripped the House of Lords of most of its power. A bill permitting home rule for Ireland was passed in 1913, but before it could be put into effect World War I broke out.