Historical Introduction
Conditions in Europe in 1914 made it virtually inevitable that war would break out sooner or later. Intense nationalism, militarism, a precarious balance of power resulting from the division of the major powers into two rival alliances, and competition for overseas empires—all played a part in creating a situation in which war could occur at almost any time.
Throughout the 19th century, nationalism (a strong patriotic feeling of loyalty to one's people or county) flourished. By the 20th century, it had become chauvinism: national pride had been exaggerated to such a degree that it meant not only love for one's country but contempt for the peoples of other nations.
Though there had not been a major war in Europe since 1815, all the Great Powers (Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Russia) had amassed huge arsenals, far beyond the needs of national defense, prior to World War I. The sense of power derived from military strength helped swell national pride. However, in time of international crisis, these arsenals tended to make European leaders think in terms of military rather than diplomatic solutions.
The Great Powers had arranged themselves into two rival alliances, producing a balance of power that, it was hoped, would prevent war. Actually the alliances led to a state in which the slightest disturbance of the existing political order or military situation caused a crisis, and each crisis increased the tension that would eventually lead to war. The alliances also made it certain that war, once it began, would involve all the Great Powers.
The alliance system that existed at the outbreak of World War I was developed after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Germany, knew that France would someday seek to avenge its humiliating defeat in that war. To reduce this threat, Bismarck entered into various alliances with the goal of isolating France from the other countries of Europe. In 1879 Bismarck concluded the Dual Alliance, a mutual defense pact with Austria-Hungary. He expanded this agreement in 1882 to include Italy, forming the Triple Alliance.
Bismarck realized that an alliance between France and Russia would be a fundamental threat to German security because in the event of war with either power Germany would be forced to fight on two fronts. Bismarck arranged the Emperors' Alliance (1881) and the Reinsurance Treaty (1887) with Russia, agreements that guaranteed Russian neutrality in the event of a Franco-German conflict.
In 1890 Bismarck was dismissed by the new German kaiser (emperor), William II. William thought that Germany should not be allied with both Austria and Russia because of their rivalry for dominance in the Balkans. Though he wanted to remain on friendly terms, William allowed the agreements with Russia to lapse.
To offset the threat of the Triple Alliance, France and Russia formed their own Dual Alliance in 1894. France also improved relations with Great Britain by entering into an informal understanding with the British known as the Entente Cordiale (1904). This was expanded into the Triple Entente in 1907 with the inclusion of Russia.
The most impressive display of the power of the European states in the 19th and early 20th centuries was the expansion of their political and economic influence to areas outside Europe. Imperial expansion provided new sources of raw materials, new markets for goods produced in the mother country, and national prestige.
Several times in the decades preceding the war, conflicting colonial ambitions in Africa threatened to lead European powers to war. Britain and France, in the Entente Cordiale, ended years of rivalry by pledging to cooperate in the colonization of Africa. Germany, which was the newest imperial power, tried to compete with the more established imperial nations (Britain and France). Twice, in 1905 and 1911, Germany attempted to undermine French authority in Morocco. Both times Germany's gains were negligible, but the German actions caused French leaders to consider war to defend their imperial interests.
The situation in the Balkans was even more explosive: it was, in fact, the competition there between Russia and Austria-Hungary that eventually triggered World War I. Austria wanted to incorporate some of the smaller Balkan states into its empire. Russia's Balkan policy was based on Pan-Slavism, a movement to achieve cultural and political unity in a confederation of Slavic states dominated by Russia. The situation was further complicated by the rival territorial claims of various ethnic groups in the Balkans.
In the Balkan Wars (1912–13), the Turks were pushed out of most of the Balkans by Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece. When disputes arose among the victors over how the former Turkish territories were to be divided, Austria and Russia proposed conflicting settlements. Only mediation by the other European powers prevented a general war in southern Europe.
These countries also had other territorial ambitions. Serbia was seeking an outlet on the Adriatic. France and Great Britain wanted to extend their influence in the Middle East. Also, German, French, and British business interests were seeking concessions and markets in various countries, and each success brought an envious outcry from competing nations. British industrialists were particularly worried by German competition in their home market.
