Government

The USSR was a federation of 15 union republics, each made up predominantly of a large nationality group. Smaller nationalities within union republics were organized under one of three types of political subdivisions: the autonomous republic, autonomous oblast (region), or autonomous okrug (area).

Until 1990, the Communist party had a monopoly on political power. In 1990, changes in the Soviet constitution made possible a multiparty system.

Throughout most of Soviet history, the Communist party was the country's only legal political party. The party had the authority to appoint key members of the government and other institutions and used this authority to dominate Soviet society. During 1988–90, political reforms occurred that diminished the power of the Communist party by forcing it to compete with other parties in elections.

The party was headed by an official called the general secretary. In consultation with the Politburo, which was a small advisory body, he established party policy. Throughout most of Soviet history, the general secretary was the ultimate authority on policy matters and, in effect, was the country's ruler.

The Politburo and the general secretary were elected by the Central Committee, a body of more than 400 members that met twice a year to recommend policy changes. Every five years a Party Congress of more than 4,500 Communist party members from all over the Soviet Union was convened to debate and approve broad party policies. The Party Congress also elected members of the Central Committee.

In 1991, after hard-line Communists failed to reestablish the dominance of the party, the government suspended the activities of the Communist party and seized its assets.

Throughout most of its history, the Soviet Union was governed by the institutions and officials of the Communist party, especially the general secretary and the Politburo. The institutions of the central government, including the legislature and various administrative ministries, merely ratified and implemented the policies of the Communist party. Under Mikhail Gorbachev's rule (1985–91), the central government changed from a one-party Communist system to a multiparty parliamentary system with a president and two legislative bodies.

The president was the head of state and was to be elected to a five-year term by a nationwide popular vote. (For various reasons, Gorbachev, the first and only Soviet president, was elected by the Congress of People's Deputies rather than by the people.) The president had extensive powers, including the authority to issue decrees. He was assisted by a cabinet made up of the prime minister and other ministers.

The 2,250-member Congress of People's Deputies was the Soviet Union's representative assembly. The Congress provided general policy guidelines on national issues and met at least once a year. The Congress selected the 542 members of the Supreme Soviet, a legislative body that met for about eight months each year.

Each union republic had a one-house, popularly elected legislature, which in turn elected a Presidium and Council of Ministers. The autonomous republics and other political subdivisions generally followed a similar pattern. In theory, the union republics had considerable autonomy. In practice, however, they were largely under the control of the central government. During 1990–91, central control over the union republics gradually weakened and eventually disintegrated.